Шарль-Луи де Секонда Монтескье 1685-1755. Монтескье - французский политик, философ. Большинство работ его появилось под заголовком "В духе закона", состоящем из 2х томов, включая 31 книгу в 1086 страницу. Это одна из величайших работ в истории политической теории и юриспруденции. Автор был знаком со множеством других работ, но не отождествлял себя ни с какой из них. Ни один из предметов работы Монтескье не остался незамеченным, неоцененным. Отношение к трем его работам особенно запомнилось. Первой "Классификация правительства". Отказавшись от классических разделений предшественников в монархии, аристократии, демократии, Монтескье провел собственный анализ и присвоенный каждой форме правления принцип: республика, основанная на добродетели, монархия - на чести, и деспотизм - на страхе. Его определения показывают, что классификация опирается не на месте власти, а на манере правления, включая историрческий, а не узкий описательных подход. Следующае из его известных заметок - теория разделения властей. Разделение на законодательную, исполнительную и судебную. Он утверждал государство гаранттирующее свободу должно принять эти три силы, работающие независимо друг от друа. Это стало возможно самой важной политической мыслью 18 века. Хотя в последующие времена этот вопрос стал спорным, современников он поражал авторитетом и вдохновил декларацаю прав человека и конституцию соединенных штатов. Третья самая значимая доктрина Монтескье заключается в политическом влиянии климата. Основываясь на собственном опыте путешествий и экспериментов, он отметил, в первой степени этот эффект думая о жаре и холоде, о физической оболочке личности и как последствие о интелектуальном виде общества. В соответствие с Монтескье, другие факторы (законы, регион, и принципы правительства) - не физической природы, и их влияние сравнимо с влиянием климата, на то как цивилизация растет и движется вперед. После того как книгу опубликовали слава пришла к Монтескье от самых разных интелектульных деятелей. Шотландский филосов Дэвид Хьюм писал из лондона что работа заполучила бы признание читателей всех возрастов, итальянский друг говорил о прочтении работы в восхищении. Швейцарский ученый чарльз боннет сказал что Монтескье открыл законы интелектуального мира, как Ньютон сделал то же с физическим. Философы просветления приняли его как за своего, каким он на самом деле и был. Он получил всемирную славу. Но известность легко легла на его плечи. Все кто его встречал отмечают приветливость и скромность. Он верный доббрый друг, готовый молодым. остроумный мужчина, слегка рассеяный в общесвте.
Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. The second son of Alexander Melville Bell and Eliza Grace Symonds Bell, he was named for his paternal grandfather. The middle name “Graham” was added when he was 10 years old. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell, both of whom died from tuberculosis.
During his youth, Alexander Graham Bell experienced strong influences that had a profound effect on his later life. Bell’s hometown of Edinburgh, Scotland, was known as the “Athens of the North,” for its rich culture of arts and science. His grandfather and father were experts on the mechanics of voice and elocution. Alexander’s mother, who was nearly deaf, became an accomplished pianist and inspired him to undertake big challenges. Eliza home schooled Alexander and instilled an infinite curiosity of the world around him. He received one year of formal education in a private school and two years at Edinburgh’s Royal High School. Though a mediocre student, he displayed an uncommon ability to solve problems. At age of 12, while playing with a friend in a grain mill, he noticed the slow process of husking the wheat grain. He went home and built a devise with rotating paddles and nail brushes that easily removed the husks from the grain. Early attempts to follow his passion.
Young Alexander was groomed early to carry on in the family business, but his headstrong nature conflicted with his father’s overbearing manner. Seeking a way out, Alexander volunteered to care for his grandfather when he fell ill in 1862. The elder Bell encouraged young Alexander and instilled an appreciation for learning and intellectual pursuits. By age 16, Alexander had joined his father in his work with the deaf and soon assumed full charge of his father’s London operations.
On one of his trips to America, Alexander’s father discovered its healthier environment and decided to move the family there. At first, Alexander resisted, for he was establishing himself in London, but eventually relented after both his brothers had succumbed to tuberculosis. In July, 1870, the family settled in Brantford, Ontario, Canada. There, Alexander set up a workshop to continue his study of the human voice.
Passion for shaping the future.
In 1871, Alexander Graham Bell moved to Boston and began work on a device that would allow for the telegraph transmission of several messages set to different frequencies. He found financial backing through local investors Thomas Sanders and Gardiner Hubbard. Between 1873 and 1874, Bell spent long days and nights trying to perfect the harmonic telegraph. During his experiments, he became interested in another idea, transmitting the human voice over wires. The diversion frustrated Bell’s benefactors and Thomas Watson, a skilled electrician, was hired to refocus Bell on the harmonic telegraph. But Watson soon became enamored with Bell’s idea of voice transmission and the two created a great partnership with Bell being the idea man and Watson having the expertise to bring Bell’s ideas to reality.
Through 1874 and 1875, Bell and Watson labored on both the harmonic telegraph and a voice transmitting device. Though at first frustrated by the diversion, Bell’s investors soon saw the value of voice transmission and filed a patent on the idea. For now the concept was protected, but the device still had to be developed. On March 10, 1876, Bell and Watson were successful. Legend has it that Bell knocked over a container of transmitting fluid and shouted, “Mr. Watson, come here. I want you!” The more likely explanation was Bell heard a noise over the wire and called to Watson. In any case, Watson heard Bell’s voice through the wire and thus, he received the first telephone call.
With this success, Alexander Graham Bell began to promote the telephone in a series of public demonstrations. At the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, in 1876, Bell demonstrated the telephone to the Emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro, who exclaimed, “My God, it talks!” Other demonstrations followed, each at a greater distance than the last. The Bell Telephone Company was organized on July 9, 1877. With each new success, Alexander Graham Bell was moving out of the shadow of his father.
