is sheet metal forming
and where it can be used? 3. What is close-die forging? 4. What is forging? 5. What are the types of forging? 6. What types of hammers are used now? 7. Where are coining and upsetting used? 8. What process is used in wire production? 9. Describe the process of making the roof of a Drawing consists of pulling metal through a die. One type is wire drawing. The diameter reduction that can be achieved in one die is limited, but several dies in series can be used to get the desired reduction. Sheet metal forming Sheet metal forming is widely used when parts of certain shape and size are needed. It includes forging, bending and shearing. One characteristic of sheet metal forming is that the thickness of the sheet changes little in processing. The metal is stretched just beyond its yield point (2 to 4 percent strain) in order to retain the new shape. Bending can be done by pressing between two dies. Shearing is a cutting operation similar to that used for cloth. Each of these processes may be used alone, but often all three are used on one part. For example, to make the roof of an automobile from a flat sheet, the edges are gripped and the piece pulled in tension over a lower die. Next an upper die is pressed over the top, finishing the forming operation, and finally the edges are sheared off to give the final dimensions. Forging Forging is the shaping of a piece of metal by pushing with open or closed dies. It is usually done hot in order to reduce the required force and increase the metal's plasticity. Open-die forging is usually done by hammering a part between two flat faces. It is used to make parts that are too big to be formed in a closed die or in cases where only a few parts are to be made. The earliest forging machines lifted a large hammer that was then dropped on the workpiece, but now air or steam hammers are used, since they allow greater control over the force and the rate of forming. The part is shaped by moving or turning it between blows. Closed-die forging is the shaping of hot metal within the walls of two dies that come together to enclose the workpiece on all sides. The process starts with a rod or bar cut to the length needed to fill the die. Since large, complex shapes and large strains are involved, several dies may be used to go from the initial bar to the final shape. With closed dies, parts can be made to close tolerances so that little finish machining is required. Two closed-die forging operations are given special names. They are upsetting and coining. Coining takes its name from the final stage of forming metal coins, where the desired imprint is formed on a metal disk that is pressed in a closed die. Coining involves small strains and is done cold. Upsetting involves a flow of the metal back upon itself. An example of this process is the pushing of a short length of a rod through a hole, clamping the rod, and then hitting the exposed length with a die to form the head of a nail or bolt.
2. If you (had made) an appointment with the minister last week, it (would have been) possible to settle the matter yesterday.
3. If you (study) the information well, you (will know) about the history of the civil service.
4. If he (were) here, he (would help) us.
5. If he (had worked) hard, he would (have made) progress.
6. I (would phone) him if I (knew) where he works.
7. I (will hear) his complaints if I (have) time.
8. If I (were) in his place, I (would refuse).
9. If he (had kept) records, he would not (have forgotten) anything.
10. You (will avoid) many mistakes if you (observe) the rules.